French Revolution Timeline Essay

What was the meeting of the Estate General? The estates General met very seldom. Their last meeting was in 1614. The Estates General met back in 1789 in Versailles. They met back because government was in a serious crisis. France was bankrupt and Louis XVI needed the Estates General opinion on what to do next. What was the importance of The Meeting of the Estates General? The importance of the Meeting of the Estates General was to give Louis XVI some judgement on what to do next for the debt that France has to pay. Louis XVI, new director the treasury. Jacques Necker hoped that the meeting of the Estates General would help France raise some money. In hope of the Estates General siding with the king gave the Estates General the power to change taxes. The Estates General did not agree with the king. Tennis court Oath: June 1789 What was the Tennis Court Oath? A pledge made by the Third Estate of the Estates General at the Royal Tennis Court that states that they will continue to meet until France has a new form of government. What was the importance of the Tennis Court Oath? Louis backed down and had all three estates in the Estates General. It was one-step closer to winning the French Revolution. Storming of the Bastille: 1789 What was the Storming of the Bastille? On July 14, 1789, a great mob attacked the royal prison known as the â€Å"Bastille.† There were 7 prisoners that were released. The mob cut off the head of the governors and paraded through the streets. What was the importance of the Storming of the Bastille? The fall of the Bastille frightened Louis to agreeing to send his solders away. The citizens formed a new army called the â€Å"National Guard† to keep order in Paris. The Great Fear: 1789 What was the Great Fear? The great fear was when peasants began to feel that the king’s soldiers and the aristocrats would stop the revolution. These feeling resulted to the â€Å"Great Fear.† The peasants stormed the chà ¢teau of the aristocrats. They burned down the chà ¢teaux, killed hundreds of people, invaded their offices and burned feudal obligations to their lords. What was the importance of the Great Fear? The split of the revolution spread wildly to the countrysides, and serfs rose up and fought to end the feudal system. Women’s March: October, 1789 What was the Women’s March? The Women’s March was hundreds of women marching to Versailles because of food crisis and they think that the government needed to come to Paris instead of being isolated in Versailles. What was the importance of the Women’s March? The importance of the Women’s March was to get the queen and king to come back to Paris and solve their crisis or troubles involving women declaring for women’s rights. National Assembly pass laws: 1789 What laws were passed by the National Assembly? The laws that the National Assembly passed were: †¢ Abolished all feudal rights, privileges, and ended serfdom. †¢ Passed the Declaration of the Rights of man and the citizen. What was the importance of these laws? The importance of these laws was: †¢ Feudal rights allowed royalty to take advantage of the serfs. This ended. †¢ Gave basic human needs to the everyday citizens. Monarchy tries to Escape/ Monarchy Overthrown: 1791 How did the Monarchy try to escape? How was the Monarchy overthrown? In 1791, the queen, king and children tried to escape from the country to bring back the monarchy. The royal family was recognized and arrested so Louis was forced to accept the constitution and was tried for his crimes and guillotined on January 21, 1793. What was the importance of overthrowing the Monarchy? A republic began known as the Reign of Terror, which happed from 1793 to 1794. it was the end of monarchy. King Louis XVI is guillotined/ Republic is established: 1793 Who is responsible for guillotining King Louis? Jean-Paul Marat, Jacques Danton, and Maximilien Robespierre were the radical leaders of the revolution they sent the king to trial and had him executed. Robespierre was ordered to guillotine King Louis in 1793. Who established a Republic? What is a Republic? The Radicals established a Republic and a republic is a country lead without a monarch. Reign of Terror: 1793-94 What was the Reign of Terror? †¢ The trial and execution of the king. †¢ The government passed down harsh laws to anyone who disagreed with the Jacobins. †¢ 37,000 people were guillotined for standing up against the government. Why was the Reign of Terror important? It was important because complete reorganization of the armed forces, and new legislation was passed to regulate business. All granaries and hackneys placed under control. Fall of Robespierre: 1793-94 What happened to Robespierre and why? Robespierre’s downfall was that while trying to create a democratic government he instead became a dictator. He caused a lot of bloodshed, the â€Å"Reign of Terror,† and when he tried to condemn those who were against him, he was condemned because he, himself turned into a ruler like that of an absolute monarchy instead of democracy. What is important about the end to Robespierre? After he was gone, the â€Å"Reign of Terror† was over and the rule of the Directory began. People began to realize that a good government isn’t just non-monarchy. Directory Meets: 1794 What was the Directory? The directory was a new government that was controlled by middle class. It was formed and replaced Robespierre. Why was the forming of the Directory important? It was important because they replaced Robespierre, however only classes with money could vote and elect members to government to equality was gone.

Baer’s Comb Sorter

Baer’s Comb Sorter Diagram Fibre Length: The â€Å"length† of cotton fibres is a property of commercial value as the price is generally based on this character. To some extent it is true, as other factors being equal, longer cottons give better spinning performance than shorter ones. But the length of a cotton is an indefinite quantity, as the fibres, even in a small random bunch of a cotton, vary enormously in length. Following are the various measures of length in use in different countries Mean length:It is the estimated quantity which theoretically signifies the arithmetic mean of the length of all the fibres present in a small but representative sample of the cotton. This quantity can be an average according to either number or weight. Upper quartile length: It is that value of length for which 75% of all the observed values are lower, and 25% higher. Effective length: It is difficult to give a clear scientific definition. It may be defined as the upper quartile of a numerical length distribution liminated by an arbitrary construction. The fibres eliminated are shorter than half the effective length. Modal length: It is the most frequently occurring length of the fibres in the sample and it is related to mean and median for skew distributions, as exhibited by fibre length, in the follwing way.(Mode-Mean) = 3(Median-Mean) where, Median is the particular value of length above and below which exactly 50% of the fibres lie. 2. 5% Span length: It is defined as the distance spanned by 2. % of fibres in the specimen being tested when the fibres are parallelized and randomly distributed and where the initial starting point of the scanning in the test is considered 100%. This length is measured using â€Å"DIGITAL FIBROGRAPH†. 50% Span length: It is defined as the distance spanned by 50% of fibres in the specimen being tested when the fibres are parallelized and randomly distributed and where the initial starting point of the scanning in the te st is considered 100%. This length is measured using â€Å"DIGITAL FIBROGRAPH†.The South India Textile Research Association (SITRA) gives the following empirical relationships to estimate the Effective Length and Mean Length from the Span Lengths. Effective length = 1. 013 x 2. 5% Span length + 4. 39 Mean length = 1. 242 x 50% Span length + 9. 78 Baer’s Comb sorter Method: For the determination of the length and of the length distribution of cotton fibers in purified cotton the Baer’s Comb Sorter method: These directions describe the mode of procedure that is well adapted to the sorter* most extensively used in the United States at the present time.Apparatus— The sorter Duplex Cotton Fiber Sorter consists of two banks of combs rigidly mounted side by side on a common base. Each bank of combs consists of at least 12 individual combs spaced 3. 2 mm apart, one behind the other, and mounted in grooves so that as they are approached during the fractionating pr ocess and no longer needed, they may be dropped below the working plane. Each individual comb has a single row of accurately aligned and sharply pointed teeth, 12 mm long, consisting of needles 0. 38 mm in diameter. The teeth are spaced 62 to 25 mm over an extent of approximately 50 mm.Accessory equipment consists of fiber-sorter forceps, fiber-depressing grid, fiber-depressing smooth plate, and velvet-covered plates. The sorter forceps consist of two brass pieces approximately 75 mm long, hinged on one end and slightly curved to present a beaked aspect at the gripping end for gripping the protruding fibers close to the surfaces of the combs. Usually, one of the gripping edges has a leather or other fibrous padding. The gripping edge is approximately 19 mm wide. The fiber-depressing grid consists of a series of brass rods spaced 3. mm apart so that they may be placed between the combs to press the fibers down between the teeth. The fiber-depressing smooth plate consists of a polishe d brass plate approximately 25 ? 50 mm, with a knob or handle on the upper surface whereby the plate may be smoothed over the fibers as they are laid on the velvet surface of the array plates. The velvet-covered plates, upon which the fibers may be arrayed, are aluminum sheets approximately 100 mm ? 225 mm ? 2. 4 mm thick, covered on both sides with high-grade velvet, preferably black.Standard Atmosphere For Testing: The atmosphere in which physical tests on textile materials are performed. It has a relative humidity of 65 + 2 per cent and a temperature of 20 + 2 ° C. In tropical and sub-tropical countries, an alternative standard atmosphere for testing with a relative humidity of 65 + 2 per cent and a temperature of 27 + 2 ° C, may be used. Procedure With the fiber-depressing grid carefully insert the weighed test portion into one bank of combs of the cotton sorter, so that it extends across the combs at approximately right angles.With the sorter forceps, grip by the free ends a small portion of the fibers extending through the teeth of the comb nearest to the operator; gently and smoothly draw them forward out of the combs, and transfer them to the tips of the teeth in the second bank of combs, laying them parallel to themselves, straight, and approximately at right angles to the faces of the combs, releasing the gripped ends as near to the face of the front comb as possible. With the depressor grid carefully press the transferred fibers down into the teeth of the combs.Continue the operation until all of the fibers are transferred to the second bank of combs. During this transfer of the fibers, drop the combs of the first bank in succession when and as all of the protruding fibers have been removed. Turn the machine through 180, and transfer the cotton fibers back to the first bank of combs in the manner described in the preceding paragraph. Take great care in evening up the ends of the fibers during both of the above transfers, arranging them as closel y as possible to the front surface of the proximal comb.Such evening out of the ends of the protruding fibers may involve drawing out straggling fibers from both the front and rear aspects of the banks of combs, and re-depositing them into and over the main bundle in the combs. Turn the machine again through 180. Drop successive combs if necessary to expose the ends of the longest fibers. It may be necessary to re-deposit some straggling fibers. With the forceps withdraw the few most protuberant fibers. In this way continue to withdraw successively the remaining protuberant fibers back to the front face of the proximal comb.Drop this comb and repeat the series of operations in the same manner until all of the fibers have been drawn out. In order not to disturb seriously the portion being tested, and thereby vitiate the length fractionation into length groups, make several pulls (as many as 8 to 10) between each pair of combs. Lay the pulls on the velvet-covered plates alongside each other, as straight as possible, with the ends as clearly defined as possible, and with the distal ends arranged in a straight line, pressing them down gently and smoothly with the fiber-depressing smooth plate before releasing the pull from the forceps.Employ not fewer than 50 and not more than 100 pulls to fractionate the test portion. Group together all of the fibers measuring 12. 5 mm (about 1/2 inch) or more in length, and weigh the group to the nearest 0. 3 mg. In the same manner, group together all fibers 6. 25 mm (about 1/4 inch) or less in length, and weigh in the same manner. Finally, group the remaining fibers of intermediate lengths together and weigh. The sum of the three weights does not differ from the initial weight of the test portion by more than 3 mg.Divide the weight of each of the first two groups by the weight of the test portion to obtain the percentage by weight of fiber in the two ranges of length. Geometrical Construction of Comb Sorter Diagram Figure . Geo metrical analysis of comb sorter diagram 1. Q is the mid-point of OA, i. e OQ = ? OA. 2. From Q draw QP? parallel to OB to cut the curve at P?. 3. Drop the perpendicular P? P. 4. Mark off OK equal to ? OP and erect the perpendicular K? K. This is a first a approximation to the effective length. 5. S is the mid-point of K? K 6. From S draw SR? parallel to OB to cut the curve at R?. 7.Drop the perpendicular R? R. 8. Mark off OL equal to ? OR. 9. Erect the perpendicular L? L. This is the effective length. Fibre Length Variation: Even though, the long and short fibres both contribute towards the length irregularity of cotton, the short fibres are particularly responsible for increasing the waste losses, and cause unevenness and reduction in strength in the yarn spun. The relative proportions of short fibres are usually different in cottons having different mean lengths; they may even differ in two cottons having nearly the same mean fibre length, rendering one cotton more irregular than the other.It is therefore important that in addition to the fibre length of a cotton, the degree of irregularity of its length should also be known. Variability is denoted by any one of the following attributes Co-efficient of variation of length (by weight or number) irregularity percentage Dispersion percentage and percentage of short fibres Uniformity ratio Uniformity ratio is defined as the ratio of 50% span length to 2. 5% span length expressed as a percentage. uniformity ration = (50% span length / 2. 5% span length) x 100 uniformity index = (mean length / upper half mean length) x 100 Short Fibres:The negative effects of the presence of a high proportion of short fibres is well known. A high percentage of short fibres is usually associated with, – Increased yarn irregularity and ends dddown which reduce quality and increase processing costs – Increased number of neps and slubs whiiich is detrimental to the yarn appearance – Higher fly liberation and mach ine contttamination in spinning, weaving and knitting operations. – Higher wastage in combing and other oppperations. While the detrimental effects of short fibres have been well established, there is still considerable debate on what constitutes a ‘short fibre'.In the simplest way, short fibres are defined as those fibres which are less than 12 mm long. An estimate of the short fibres was made from the staple diagram obtained in the Baer Sorter method Short fibre content = (RB/OB) x 100References: 1. â€Å"TE05046PhysicalTextileTestingandQualityControl. doc. † Www. most. gov. mm. MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION GOVERNMENT TECHNOLOGICAL COLLEGES/INSTITUTES DEPARTMENT OF TEXTILE ENGINEERING, n. d. Web. ;lt;http://www. most. gov. m/techuni/media/TE05046PhysicalTextileTestingandQualityControl. doc;gt;. 2. Kohli, Nitesh. Fibre Testing. Scribd. com. N. p. , 18 May 2009. Web. ;lt;http://www. scribd. com/doc/15569730/F ibre-Testing;gt;. 3. â€Å"FIBRE TESTING. † Textiletechinfo. com. N. p. , n. d. Web. 25 July 2012. ;lt;http://textiletechinfo. com/spinning/fibretesting. htm;gt;. 4. Tirumalai, Radhakrishna S. â€Å"General Chapters: COTTON. † Http://www. pharmacopeia. cn. N. p. , n. d. Web. 25 July 2012. ;lt;http://www. pharmacopeia. cn/v29240/usp29nf24s0_c691. html;gt;

A Glimpse of Chinese Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

A Glimpse of Chinese Art - Essay Example The earliest Shuiyei Guanyin work of art was found in Dunhuang. This was later described the deity on the painting to have â€Å"distinctive attributes of Guanyin† in the Tang dynasty, and the dynasties that followed thereafter. The icon had a â€Å"willow branch† and â€Å"water bottle† in both hands, and it was seated on a rock. The background had a fabulous full moon and the place was filled with bamboo grove. This work had influenced the Chinese culture and art since full moon and bamboo grove have been the symbolic icons in Chinese paintings. This work of art continued to transform and was interpreted into other works of art such as sculptures. This art later on signified the beauty of Chinese art from Indian culture that had the resemblance of the said icon. This has fascinated me in such way that I was able to appreciate how art can live through the years, and represent the stories behind it. This even became a more developed one by having several interpre tations and versions. Art can even prove to connect different cultures together, and yet, it maintains the true meaning and essence of the art for each culture. The horses of the Tang Dynasty are among the most promising treasures and works of art in Chinese culture. This is due to the fact that horses made a significant role during the war since this signified stability of the troop. The Tang dynasty was one of the well known dynasties in China, and their horses were known to be one of the greatest inspirations to come up with ideas on Chinese art. The â€Å"Zhaoling Six Horses† is said to be the inspired work of art from the Chinese custom of â€Å"stone relievos.† These horses were owned by the emperor Li Shimin of Tang dynasty (Dongxia 121-122). These horses were described to be a group of equestrians and that they were wearing clothes suited for the battle, but at the same time neat and steady. The group was not all Chinese by ethnicity, but they all had the readi ness to face war (â€Å"Tang Dynasty†). The â€Å"horses in Tang dynasty† has made an impact on me not just with how they served their purpose back in the Tang dynasty, but as to how they had remained to be a symbolic icon in Tang dynasty. I see them as a proof of stability, and at the same time elegance as they

International Law Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

International Law - Coursework Example They allege that George W. Bush committed war crimes in October 2008 through the act of authorizing attacks by U.S. military units from Iraq into Syria. The arrest warrant charges George W. Bush with responsibility for the attacks that allegedly resulted in the deaths of eight villagers, four of them children of the refugee parents Mr. and Mrs. Yehia Dajani. This document is an indictment for the arrest of the former President of the United States George W. Bush upon the grounds of war crimes and the gross violation of human rights. The former President is legally liable for these crimes and should, therefore, face trial. Former American President Bush is hereby deemed to be morally as well as legally responsible for the deaths of innocent men, women, and children, in a country that was not officially at war with the United States at the time of these deaths, namely Syria. These attacks resulted in the deaths of eight innocent people and drove their families towards becoming homeless refugees. Four children died in these attacks and justice should be served for the sake of their parents, Mr. and Mrs. Yehia Dajani. It is alleged here that the death of innocent people in Syria was directly caused by the orders of the former President George W. Bush to American armed forces whilst he held that position in 2008. President Bush ordered missile strikes against alleged terrorist targets in Syria without any regard for the possibility of killing innocent men, women, and children when a state of war did not exist between his country and Syria. Due to his express orders, Mr. and Mrs. Yehia Dajani witnessed the deaths of their four children. Former President Bush destroyed their family and took away their future. The American missile attacks resulted in the cold-blooded murder of Syrian children, and were unjustified as well as being unnecessary deaths.  

Steve jobs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Steve jobs - Essay Example Joanne’s father did not approve the marriage and Steve as placed on adoption. Paul and Clara Jobs adopted young Steve and family lived in Silicon Valley, California. His elementary teachers recognized Steve as a bright and intelligent student and agreed he skip a class. During his high school years, the parents relocated to Cupertino. Steve could his father who was a machinist that tinkered used cars and later sold them. Steve together with his high school friend Wozniac liked to tinker electric circuits. After high school, his parents enrolled him in University of California, Berkeley while he insisted on joining Reed College. His experiences in that college led him to quit after being in that college for six months. As he comments while addressing grandaunts at Stanford University in 2005 he did not see the point of going through college and spending his entire money from his parents. At the Reeds College was a competent college in that it offered the best calligraphy in India. He took calligraphy classes where he learned different typefaces and combinations that enabled him years later to design the first Macintosh computer. After college, he briefly worked at Atari Computer Company. He left for India then back to California. His trip back to America made him experience culture shock. He quipped that Indian people depend on intuition while Americans use their intellect. According to Jobs intuition is powerful than intellect. Zen working relationship with Jobs influenced him faith in simplicity. Jobs collaborated with Wozniack and in 1976; the two classmates founded Apple Computer in Jobs parents’ garage. After the release of Apple II, the firm went public in 1980. Four years later the company launched Macintosh. As the firm grew Jobs vision of the future contradicted with the then CEO John Sculley. That led him to be eliminated from heading the Macintosh team. Jobs resigned from Apple Computer in September 1985. His elimination from Apple led him to

The Miscarriage of Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Miscarriage of Justice - Essay Example A miscarriage of justice may condemn an innocent person to punishment for a crime he/she may not have committed. While there may be a miscarriage of justice in other areas as well, it always has the most serious consequences of criminal convictions since the punishment may involve long terms or imprisonment or even execution. Wrongful convictions are difficult to overturn and although there are provisions for appeal under the law, an innocent person may suffer needless imprisonment, incarceration or even death, when a miscarriage of justice occurs. In many instances, such wrongful convictions may also be the result of unfair trials, the manipulation or fabrication of evidence or the framing of an innocent party through false testimonies and misdirection of judicial authorities. An innocent person wrongly convicted of a crime he/she did not commit, may face the consequences even after a wrongful conviction has been overturned because it is impossible to reverse the effects of punishme nt already suffered or the torment and hardship that may have been endured by the innocent person and his/her family. The most heart-rending aspect of a miscarriage of justice occurs when an innocent person is wrongfully convicted and put to death. The case of Judith Theresa3 is one of the best examples of the miscarriage of justice in terms of legal impropriety in the disclosure of material evidence and the role of experts and forensic scientists in providing evidence. In this case, a woman was convicted of being a terrorist on the grounds that nitroglycerine was discovered on her property. Defendant was convicted and sentenced to 30 years imprisonment, of which 17 had already been served when the Appeal was filed on the grounds of failure of timely disclosure. The problem, in this case, was the withholding of information by the forensic scientists who were working for the Government and believing that it was their duty to aid the police, they withheld information which they believed might prove damaging to the Prosecution’s case.

Educational Reform from a Personal Perspective Essay

Educational Reform from a Personal Perspective - Essay Example That is, I plan on becoming a better person so as to facilitate the introduction of a better educator that I believe I can become given the opportunities and challenges that are certain to come my way. For the next few years I will strive to apply the proper level of knowledge in creating different approaches in teaching that are constructive and applicable to my students. I will endeavor to incorporate technology and current trends in carrying out my academic goals and will constantly be on the lookout for current and up to-date methodologies and tenets in teaching. I will be more conscious to differences in culture, levels of perception, behavior and other factors that mark the individuality of a student and will be more receptive and responsive to the needs that such distinction may call for. Most importantly, I will work hard to prepare my students to think critically and take on responsibilities in the context of life in general and not look at the school as an indispensable ins titution that must be hurdled as an entry-way to life, but as a celebration that will mark their readiness to take on a more complex journey. †¢ What steps are necessary to get you to your goals? What obstacles might you foresee and how will you overcome them? For the following years, I plan to develop a personal teaching style that would integrate cultural, academic and behavioral diversity by establishing a learning environment that highlights personal dignity and acceptance. That is, this method would take into consideration the geographic communities around the school and will engage the students in a multi-faceted education which would bring about character formation and social awareness (Dana 2009). This method would likewise teach my students to be conscious of verbal, non-verbal, as well as verbal underpinnings in communication so as to attain a more open and interested schoolroom where the students will be conscious of their peers which would foster community collabora tion and peer support (Dewey 1997). I want to be able to establish a teaching method where the classroom is a place where the students learn and not just from their teachers, but from themselves as well. I am envisioning a transformation of the schoolroom from a place where the teachers teach and the students listen into a ceremony where everyone will take part in the teaching and everyone will benefit from learning. †¢ What is one principle from the INTASC Principles website that you feel you must improve the most to be effective in the education profession? What existing professional development programs might you pursue to address the need to improve in this area? The tenth principle under the Interstate New Teachers Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) stresses the importance of fostering interpersonal relationships in order to promote the well-being of the students and place them healthier environment that would facilitate a better academic and personal growth. I hav e always believed that learning is a process more complex that having to listen and perceive (Dana 2009). I have always believed that several factors affect learning ability and that it could not be blamed solely on state funding, federal government priorities or even the quality of the educators (Gorton 2008). After all, the government may devote billions of dollars to education and the

Inflation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Inflation - Essay Example increasing reliability on the use of technology to estimate future plans, widespread awareness of the economic decision making processes, readily available literature on risk management in business and much advanced, organized and computerized methodologies to ensure solid business-monitoring, projects today are incurring heavy financial losses. And the situation is same throughout the world. If we draw an analysis of the trends of the past and present, it would apparently seem that the modern-world businessmen are far immature and less educated in business as compared to so called â€Å"experts† of the past. It appears that development in the science and technology has generated an awareness that has adversely affected the practical world. Things are happening in an unexpected way. This proves that something bigger, not much considered / studied, is controlling business in the international scenario, and that is â€Å"inflation†. Inflation is majorly responsible for th e jammed projects, lessened GDPs, suppressed business, increased loans and this has resulted in aggravating poverty, famine and various other evils in the educationally rich and knowledgeable societies of the modern world. It is the byproduct of inflation that we see people possessing bigger sums than what their forefathers had possessed in their times, still modern-age people are poorer than their forefathers. Inflation as the name suggests, means to expand in volume and decrease in density / value, just like a balloon would expand when air is pumped in it. Apparently it seems bigger when inflated than the size it had been originally, but it becomes light enough to float in the air as compared to the uninflated balloon-material. Likewise, money has increased in amount manifolds, yet it has lost its worth. In other words, the â€Å"purchasing power† of money is lost. According to Park (2007), p-544, inflation means a rise in the price of an object with the passage of time or in other words the amount

Ecpnomics for Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ecpnomics for Business - Essay Example The economy showed signs of a slowdown, though not to the point of recession. The GDP growth of only 1.1% took many economists by surprise and was the lowest rate of growth in three years (Porter & Bajaj, 2006). The GDP reported disappointing end-of-year results for the automotive industry in the U.S. Economists believed this to be the result of high gas prices and the expiration of deep discounts from the summer and fall seasons, which automakers instituted to improve domestic sales. Many U.S, economists predicted a normalization of sales and economic growth within the first half of 2006. Though some experts were not so optimistic. Robert J. Barbera, chief economist at Investment Technologies Group, Inc. and Charles Dumas, the chief international economist at Lombard Street Research in London predicted a slowdown, if not an outright onset of a recession by the end of the year (Porter & Bajaj, 2006). According to Steve Goldstein (2006), "Home Depot rose 3% in the pre-open after it earned $1.3 billion, or 0.60 cents a share in the 4th quarter of year 2006. This rise was up from 0.47 cents a share or $1 billion within the last year. The revenue for Home Depot has risen 16% while store sales were up. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) according to the Bureau of Economic Analysis had a slow-down in the fourth-quarter growth. This primarily reflected a deceleration in consumer spending (2006). The annual growth for GDP was 3.5% which was unchanged from the estimate in February. According to the United States Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics, the unemployment rate in April 2006 was 5.10 % in Texas 4.6% in San Antonio, Texas, and 4.7% nationally, which was comparatively the lowest rate since 2001. The relationship between supply and demand became precarious as unemployment affected the industry in several ways as Bureau of Economic Analysis showed a rise in personal income

Part1_ interpreting curriculum doc & their use. Part2_using Curriculum Assignment

Part1_ interpreting curriculum doc & their use. Part2_using Curriculum doc& school knowledge.Part3_Explaing&justifying your curriculum plan - Assignment Example given scenario of early childhood curricula of making a seesaw on a twin tree, both the learning intentions and class experiences chosen by the teacher were on point. In the teaching and learning process, it is advisable that teachers should start from known concepts to unknown concepts. This means that the teacher should start teaching the learners right from prior knowledge the learners know before introducing them to new knowledge and experiences (Early Years Learning Framework (EYLF), 2014). This is exactly what the teacher did; he wanted the learners to apply the skills they have on playground seesaws and make their own from natural materials outside the school playground. Thus, the learners just transferred the knowledge and skills they use on playground seesaw to make another seesaw. These experiences promoted the spirit of creativity and confidence in the learners; the two are vital components of the learning process. The learning outcomes are the real results that emerge from the learning process, on the other hand, the learning principles are the guideline that guides teachers to provide an effective learning (Susan, 2004). Indeed the learning outcomes were appropriate to the learning experiences since the learners started to develop a sense of autonomy and inter-dependence. EYLF, (2014) states that autonomy helps learners to work with little assistance from the teacher on the other hand inter-dependence aids in sharing their ideas of one another hence, collective teaching. The two skills lead to faster learning unlike where the learners are over-dependent on the teacher. However, for these skills to develop fully, the teacher should have used various scenarios that would expose these learners to a variety of experiences. The curriculum designer should be more practical than being theoretical during the learning process (EYLF, 2014). Young learners need to be exposed to learning experiences that are more practical in nature for them to understand

James Moore v Mack Trucks, Inc and Worldwide Equipment Inc Essay Example for Free

James Moore v Mack Trucks, Inc and Worldwide Equipment Inc Essay In the case of James Moore v. Mack Trucks, Inc. and Worldwide Equipment Inc. , the facts are that the Appellant appeals against the truck manufacturer and the distributor for recovery of business losses and losses associated with the trucks eventual repossession. The Circuit Court, Floyd County had summarily dismissed the contention made by the Appellant. After ruling that the appeal has been preferred in a timely and proper manner, the court goes into the merits of the contentions of the Appellant. The Appellant alleges that when he expressed concerns about the eighteen speed transmission of the vehicle, he was informed him the transmission had been completely redone by Mack. Appellant claims that he was informed him that the truck would suit appellants needs because the truck had a large rear differential and a larger motor, allowing it to get up and down hills. This, the Appellant contends created an express warranty. However, the court dismissed the contention as the warranty and sales agreement of the defendant disclaimed all implied warranties. In my opinion, the ruling is incorrect as even though the warranty agreements signed clearly disclaim any other implied warranties, a customer can ordinarily rely on statements made by the representatives of the defendants. While the second statement made by the representative is merely an opinion, as rightly pointed by the court, the appellant should not have to suffer as a result of relying on the first statement. It is conceded that the appellant should have perused the documents diligently, yet to state that a vendor is exempted from liabilities arising out of a default of his promises so long as there is an exemption clause protecting him, would put the buyer in a very precarious position. The ruling is somewhat contrary to Christian principles in that it legitimizes a certain amount of deception by the seller, allowing him to dupe and take pecuniary advantage. Ordinarily, the tenet of caveat venditor should be followed rather than caveat emptor. As per the Christian idea, we trust our fellow beings, and it would be of benefit and advantage to all. In the given case, the respondents are allowed to be exempt from their promises solely on the basis of a technicality in the contract.

Construction And Application Of Linear Accelerators

Construction And Application Of Linear Accelerators A linear accelerator particle is a type of particle which accelerator greatly increases the velocity of charged subatomic particles or ions by subjecting the charged particles to a series of oscillating electric potentials along a linear beam line; this method of particle acceleration was invented in 1928 by Rolf Wideroe. Linear accelerators have many applications, from the generation of X-rays for medical purposes, to being an injector for a higher-energy of accelerators, to the investigation of the properties of subatomic particles. The design of a linear accelerator depends on the type of particle that is being accelerated: electrons, protons or ions. Introduction: The first linear accelerators used only a single stage of acceleration, with a direct current potential providing the energy. This could be provided by a Van de Graaff generator or a voltage multiplier power supply. Such the accelerators are severely limited in accelerating power since at high voltage; energy is lost due to corona discharge with electrical energy dissipated into the surrounding atmosphere. Such devices are still used as ion injectors for other accelerating devices. The accelerating potential in electron volts is equal to the voltage potential between the ion source and the target. The maximum voltage potential relative to the ground potential is generally not limited by the generator but rather by the tendency of voltage potential to leak away due to corona discharge or to suddenly drop due to a spark. While various techniques may be applied to raise this maximum potential the structures required become impractically massive or expensive. The multiple-stage accelerators were limited by the lack of suitable electron tubes capable of operating at high frequency and high power while maintaining both precise frequency and phase control. Various other types of accelerators such as the cyclotron and synchrocyclotron were developed to overcome these limitations. With the development of the high power klystron tube it became practical to continue the development of the linear accelerator, first for use as a high-speed injector for the synchrotron and finally as a high-power accelerator for research use, culminating in the two-mile-long Stanford Linear Accelerator (SLAC). Construction and Working: It will be consist of following components: (1) The design of the source depends on the particle that is being moved. Electrons are generated by a cold cathode, the hot cathode and photocathode, or radio frequency ion sources. Protons are generated in an ion source, which can have many different designs. If the heavier particles are to be accelerated, e.g. uranium ions and the specialized ion source are needed. (2) A high voltage source for the initial injection of particles. (3) A hollow pipe vacuum chamber. The length will vary with the application. If the device is used for the production of X-rays for inspection or therapy the pipe may be only 0.5 to 1.5 meters long. If the device is to be an injector for a synchrotron it may be about 10 meters long. If the device is used as the primary accelerator for nuclear particle investigations, it may be several thousand meters long. (4) Within the chamber, electrically isolated cylindrical electrodes are placed, whose length varies with the distance along the pipe. The length of each electrode is determined by the frequency and power of the driving power source and the nature of the particle to be accelerated, with shorter segments near the source and longer segments near the target. The mass of the particle has a large effect on the length of the cylindrical electrodes; for e.g. An electron is considerably lighter than a proton and so will generally require a much smaller section of cylindrical electrodes as it accelerates very quickly à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ think about a boulder versus a ping pong ball; it is easier to accelerate the ping pong ball. Likewise, because its mass is so small, even compared to the nucleus of an atom, electrons have much less kinetic energy than protons at the same speed. Because of the possibility of electron emissions from highly charged surfaces, the voltages used in the accelerator have an upper limit, so this cannot be as simple as just increasing voltage to match increased mass. (5) One or more sources of radio frequency energy used to energize the cylindrical electrodes. The very high power accelerator will use one source for each electrode. The sources must operate at precise power, frequency and phase appropriate to the particle type to be accelerated to obtain maximum device power Quadrupole magnets surrounding the linac of the Australian Synchrotron are used to help focus the electron beam (6) An appropriate target the electrons are accelerated to produce X-rays then water cooled tungsten target is used. Various target materials are used when protons or other nuclei are accelerated, depending upon the specific investigation. For particle-to-particle collision investigations the beam may be directed to a pair of storage rings, with the particles kept within the ring by magnetic fields. The beams may then be extracted from the storage rings to create head on particle collisions.As the particle bunch passes through the tube it is unaffected while the frequency of the driving signal and the spacing of the gaps between electrodes are designed so that the maximum voltage differential appears as the particle crosses the gap. This accelerates the particle, imparting energy to it in the form of increased velocity. At speeds near the speed of light, the incremental velocity increase will be small, with the energy appearing as an increase in the mass of the particles. In portions of the accelerator where this occurs, the tubular electrode lengths will be almost constant. (7) The additional magnetic or electrostatic lens elements may be included to ensure that the beam remains in the center of the pipe and its electrodes. (8) The very long accelerators may maintain a precise alignment of their components through the use of servo systems guided by a laser beam. Fig. (1.1) 805MHz SCC LINAC Working: A linear accelerator works on the principle of electric attraction and repulsion. A charged particle such as an electron or a proton is injected into a tube with a similar charge (negative for electrons, positive for protons). Just beyond that tube is another tube with an opposite charge. The particle gets attracted by the far tube, so it moves towards the next tube. Recall that inside a conductor, the electric field is zero therefore the charge of the tube its in doesnt affect it. But when its in the space between the tubes, it experiences an electric field which drives it forward. Just as it hits the next tube, its polarity switches so now its the same as the particle. A third tube, just beyond the second one, gets charged with the opposite polarity, and the same thing happens. This continues on, tube after tube. The particle gets a kick of energy each time it sees a new field, and the electric potential gets converted into kinetic energy. As the particle gets faster, the tubes hav e to get longer; the particle spends the same amount of time in each tube. Obviously, the geometry of the tubes and the frequency with which theyre switched needs to be calculated precisely. Linear accelerators of this type can be many miles long; theyre often long enough that the curvature of the earth needs to be accounted for during their construction. But they can accelerate particles to a significant fraction of the speed of light. Fig. (1.2) 208MHz DT LINAC Fig.(1.3) Applications of LINAC: The LINAC System highly efficient accelerators are ideally suited to many applications in industry, medicine, and research. (1) LINAC Synchrotron Injector is serving as the perfect first stage to other higher energy accelerators. (2) Semiconductor Processing. (3) Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) conventionally uses a nuclear reactor as the neutron source. Our LINAC-based neutron source provides a better controlled neutron energy spectrum, at lower cost, without the concern of radioactive waste associated with a reactor. (4) Isotope Production Our LINACs are ideally suited for isotope production, such as the PET isotopes. (5) Neutron Radiography. (6) Neutron Activation Analysis. (7) Surface Science. (8) Particle-Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE). (9) Pulsed Neutron Applications is LINAC-based neutron source allows for pulsed neutron beams for applications such as time-of-flight measurements. Uses: A linear accelerator (LINAC) is most commonly used for external beam radiation patients with cancer. It delivers a uniform dose of high-energy x-ray to the region of the patientà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s tumor. These x-rays can destroy the cancer cells, while sparing the surrounding normal tissue. The linear accelerator uses microwave technology to accelerate electrons in a part of the accelerator called the wave guide and then allows these electrons to collide with a heavy metal target. As a result of these collisions, high energy x-rays are scattered from the target. A portion of these x-rays is collected and then shaped to form a beam that matches the patients tumor. The beam comes out of a part of the accelerator called a gantry, which rotates around the patient. The patient lies on a moveable treatment couch and lasers are used to make sure the patient is in the proper position. Radiation can be delivered to the tumor from any angle by rotating the gantry and moving the treatment couch. Fig. (1.4) LINAC Advantages and Disadvantages of linear accelerator: Advantages: Linear accelerator of appropriate design are capable of accelerating heavy ions to energies exceeding those available in ring-type accelerators, which are limited by the strength of the magnetic fields required to maintain the ions on a curved path. The High power LINACs are also being developed for production of electrons at relativistic speeds, required since fast electrons traveling in an arc will lose energy through synchrotron radiation; this is the limits the maximum power that can be imparted to electrons in a synchrotron of given size. LINACs are also capable of prodigious output, producing a nearly continuous stream of particles, whereas a synchrotron will only periodically raise the particles to sufficient energy to merit a shot at the target. The burst can be held or stored in the ring at energy to give the experimental electronics time to work, but the average output current is still limited. The high density of the output makes the LINAC particularly attractive for use in loading storage ring facilities with particles in preparation for particle to particle collisions. The high mass output also makes the device practical for the production of antimatter particles, which are generally difficult to obtain, being only a small fraction of a targets collision products. These may then be stored and further used to study matter-antimatter annihilation. As there are no primary bending magnets, this cost of an accelerator is reduced. Medical grades LINACs accelerate electrons using a complex bending magnet arrangement and a 6-30 million electron-volt potential to treat both benign and malignant disease. The reliability, flexibility and accuracy of the radiation beam produced have largely supplanted cobalt therapy as a treatment tool. The device can simply be powered off when not in use; there is no source requiring heavy shielding. Disadvantages: (1) The device length limits the locations where one may be placed. (2) A great number of driver devices and their associated power supplies are required, increasing the construction and maintenance expense of this portion. (3) The walls of the accelerating cavities are made of normally conducting material and the accelerating fields are large, the wall resistivity converts electric energy into heat quickly. On the other hand superconductors have various limits and are too expensive for very large accelerators. Therefore, high energy accelerators such as SLAC, still the longest in the world, limiting the average current output and forcing the experimental detectors to handle data coming in short bursts. Future Scope: Any of the next generation accelerators will need high power of sources and if accelerating systems that transfer ac power to beam power efficiently. The challenges though span a wide range of technologies and wavelength. From very low frequency cavities used in Muon Colliders (70 MHz) to very high frequency cavities in Multi TeV linear colliders (30 GHz and more), many of the designs are based on experience and where experience is missing, scaling laws are used. How does Breakdown scale with electric field stength, pulse length and frequency? What limits peak power and effciency in modern power sources? The experts in this field should generally try to answer these questions and therefore give guidance to the accelerator designers. Limits on fields, peak powers and efficiencies should therefore be an outcome of the working group. Given the experience in the ongoing RD programs for normal and superconducting cavities the performance achieved today should be described, as well as the limitations and possible cures. The time scale for establishing these cures should be summarized as well. For both, the normal conducting and the superconducting case the subsystems (Modulators, Klystrons, Pulse Compression systems) and cavities should be addressed independently with a description of present status and of the progress being made over the last five years to allow some extrapolation. For the power sources itself, a very active field only partially driven by accelerator builders, future trends and new directions of improvements should be described. This group should also describe the likely spinoffs of these different technologies into other fields, coming out of the technical developments being done in the HEP research environment.

Characterize The Protagonist

Characterize The Protagonist Thesis Statement: The narrator, who originally loves animals and his wife, turns violent towards them and even kills his wife, because of alcohol addiction. Alcohol addiction as a form of illness, its consequences and examples from personal experience. In the â€Å"The Black Cat† (1843) by Edgar Allan Poe, the protagonist and his wife love animals and have a number of them. The protagonist favorite pet was a black cat named Pluto. Because of his addiction to alcohol he ends up killing his favorite pet and his wife. The narrator, who originally loves animals and his wife, turns violent towards them and even kills his wife, because of alcohol addiction. Alcohol addiction as a form of illness, its consequences and examples from personal experience. In the biging of the story, the narrator is a day before he dies and explains the reasons why he is in prison. Firstly he mention that he is always fond of animals and his wife also shard this love. They had a number of pets, including the cat named Pluto of which the narrator was particularly fond of. As the story goes on the narrator addiction to alcohol got worse taking the best out of him. His illness drives him to have dilutions of the cat that avoiding him while he was drunk. And later on drives him to kill his wife. It seems to me that a clear explanation of his addiction is not given in the story. Around that time of the story alcohol was something many men got addicted to. Perhaps we could say that poverty and such issues had something to do with the problem. But still one can only assume. We could also assume that a reason as to why he became addicted to alcohol was because he hadnt a really strong personality. According to the narrator the problem with the alcohol progressed gradually and although in the beginning he only spoke harshly to his wife, he went on to physically abuse her as well.   That story strongly reminds me of my father and me. My personal experiences are the following. When it comes to my father it seems that he was shearing the same motive as the protagonist of the story. In the time when my father had a problem with alcohol was a time when he had financial and personal problems. At that time us family was just beginning to expand and us family business had suffered blow. Our family was counting of him to provide for everything and he couldnt keep up. Because of that he began drinking. He had mention to me that during that period the alcohol was helped him to escape reality temporally. The result from drinking was frustration and anger; he was rude and angry towards us. Those are of the similarities I noticed between the narrator and my father. To sum up, people with alcohol problems usually are having problems in their lives and they are trying to escape from them in order fell good or not to feel anything at all. Alcohol leads to many consequences physical and social ones as well. Perhaps the people that end up having such addictions already suffer from health, social and other problems, but in my opinion it usually happens to weaker characters. People with strong personalities tend to have a better control over their lives, and even though both the narrator could have been a strong character, just like my father he could be going through a rough phase in his life.

Wal-Mart Essay -- Chain Stores Wal-Mart Sam Walton Essays

Wal-Mart Wal-Mart started out as a five and dime store by Sam Walton back in the 1950’s in Rogers, Arkansas. From those humble beginnings, Wal-Mart is now the world’s largest corporation passing the likes of U.S. Steel & GM with over $256 Billion in sales for one year announced at an annual stockholders meeting. What makes Wal-Mart so successful? The rise of technology and the explosion of the global economy, coupled with the effort of keeping prices as low as possible has propelled the conglomerate into becoming the world leader in logistics. They were one of the first to understand the power of the barcode. They also shifted the industry from ‘Push’ to ‘Pull’ production, meaning retailers would decide what and how much a manufacturer should produce. Due to the power possessed by Wal-Mart, other companies and suppliers have set up satellite offices around their corporate headquarters in Bentonville, Arkansas. Rubbermaid, stationed in Wooster, Ohio, wasn’t well known until their variety of products donned the shelves of Wal-Mart. In 1994, they were voted as the most admired company in America for its quality due largely to its partnership with Wal-Mart. Raw materials among other materials of production increased for Rubbermaid which meant a price increase to all of its retailers. Wal-Mart wouldn’t accept the price increase and subsequently dropped a number of Rubbermaid products, which began the decline for the company. Newell, a rival, bought out Rubbermaid for...

The Ivory Coast Overview and Media Analysis Essay -- essays research p

Part 1: Country Background The Rà ©publique de Cà ´te d'Ivoire, also known as the Ivory Coast, is a country in West Africa bordering Liberia and Guinea to the west, Mali and Burkina Faso to the north, Ghana to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south. The location now known as the Ivory Coast was made a protectorate of France during the era of imperialism by a treaty in the 1840's, and became a French colony in 1893. The country gained its independence in 1960, at which point it was led by Fà ©lix Houphouà «t-Boigny until 1993. During these years, the country was closely tied with its' West African neighbors economically and politically, but also maintained trade with the Western world, furthering the nations economic development. However, since the end of Houphouà «t-Boigny?s rule the countries stability has been in serious decline, brought on by a number of coups vying for power. Following the takeover by two militia groups in 1999 and 2001 that served to replace the preexisting political pow ers, the country has been subject to a civil war since 2002. Today, the government is identified as a republic with strong executive power embodied by the president, President Gbagbo. The nation?s current state of unrest has greatly hampered its economic development and social and political stability, and the violent state of the country poses a serious threat for those wishing to do business with the Ivory Coast. Part 2: Country Profile ? Population: According to UN census data in 2005, Cà ´te d'Ivoire has a population of 17.1 million individuals. According to data in 2003, 43.6% of the population is female. The largest city in the country is Abidjan, which is the center for most of the countries economic activity and host t... ...urces receive pressure from parties in power to present a specific point of view. Additionally, I believe that the widespread poverty throughout the country further inhibits the local freedom of press. My findings of limited internet access and low literacy rates suggest a lack of social mobility that may correlate with people?s inability to demand truth from local media forces. It is clear that the powers in charge have not accepted the responsibility to place value on a high standard of media, and therefore it is the role of the citizens to pursue such freedoms. Because local citizens have not been able to express these wishes, perhaps it is at this point that Western influences must intervene. Although Western influence has been hampered in the Ivory Coast by civil war, our global awareness of the situation in the country provides grounds for intervention.

Micheal Dransfield :: essays research papers

Michael Dransfield: A poet you can feel, but never truly understand.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During a time of great change, both ideally and physically, in Australian history, a young man by the name of Michael Dransfield made his presence known in the highly evolving scene of poetry. Dransfield was an eccentric character, to say the least, and was recognized for his masterful ability of truly capturing the essence of many of life’s situations. Regardless of the â€Å"heaviness† or the difficulties of the subject matter being portrayed throughout his poetry, Dransfield was mentally equipped to fully encompass any life experience and dawn light on some of its â€Å"eternal truths† in the world. Although he tragically died of a heroin overdose in 1973 (he was 24 years old), Dransfield made a lasting impression on Australian poetry; never to be forgotten and to be forever considered â€Å"one of the foremost poets of the ’68 generation of counter-cultural dreamers† (Chan, 2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout his brief existence on this earth, Dransfield was able to produce an extensive body of work that ranged from the human act of â€Å"loving† to the dreadful experience of having a drug overdose. His work is â€Å"framed within the literary construct of the ‘Generation of ’68’† because it undeniably challenged the â€Å"literary status quo† during that period of time, and he â€Å"overwhelmed it with sheer talent† (Kinsella, 2002). Dransfield was innovative, unique, and was seen as somewhat a â€Å"global poet, and something of a prophet† (Kinsella, 2002). He existed during a time where poets were more inclined to avoid any mention of what they really did ( in the drug using sense), taking refuge in the socially accepted subject of football, rather than confronting the challenges associated with drug use. Dransfield had no such inhibitions, he was the â€Å"quintessential drug poet† in Australi an literary history, and it was through his drug usage—both the beauty and the destruction of it—that Dransfield was able to fully let his talent and generosity shine for all to see. He blazed the new trails for all those that were to follow him, and successfully created a place for the â€Å"authentic experience† in the realm of poetry.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is a shame that it took such a personal tragedy â€Å"for [Dransfield] to engage so definitively with the experience of addiction†¦in such an astonishingly short time† (Armand, 1997). His work can only be marveled at and admired for its â€Å"richly cosmopolitan tone, its urgent sense of possibility, its sheer ‘cannibal energy’, and its persistent attempt to resolve difficult emotional problems† (Armand, 1997).

The Greek Polis

The polis is the city-state of ancient Greece where Greek politics, commerce and creative culture was centered. It developed from the Archaic period and is considered the ancestor of the terms city, state and citizenship. It was the central urban area that may have some degree of rule over the surrounding countryside. Among the Greek polis were Athens, Thebes and Sparta which were considered independent with each other. The polis is typically bounded around a citadel or an acropolis and would essentially have a market called the agora and would usually have one or more places of worship and a gymnasium. The Greeks considered the polis or city-states as a unique institution because in ancient times, it was the first gathering of people wherein the rulers or officials were elected by the people and laws were passed. Although the polis was composed of several tribes or demes, it was ruled not by a particular king or oligarchy but rather considered as a political entity ruled by the inhabitants or citizens themselves. To some extent, there is a high degree of citizen involvement and participation in the management of the public organization in a polis. The polis was considered as the most significant contribution in politics of the Greek people. The fundamental difference between the ancient Greek polis and a modern day country city like that of Western Europe or America is that the Greeks did not consider the polis as under any sovereignty while a modern age city is necessarily under a sovereign country or state. In other words, the polis is an autonomous entity while a modern city is positively positioned in a sovereign state. The polis is not identified by territory but rather by the citizenship of its people whereas a modern city is generally set apart by land area and population. Their similarities lie greatly in them being both centers of commerce, artistry, politics and the melting pot of state development.

Othello Questions Essay

ACT I 1. While Shakespeare presents the world of Venice as a place of civilization, is slow turns into a place of un-civilization and disputes. For example, Roderigo and Iago wake up Brabantio and tell him that there are thieves in his house. In reply, Brabantio says â€Å"This is Venice. My house is not a grange.† This shows how Venice is not usually a place with interrupting events. . Shakespeare also shows how Venice is slowing becoming corrupt. This is demonstrated when Desdemona elopes with Othello. Brabantio orders a search to get Othello. When Othello tells the Duke Brabantio accusation are false another search is put in place for Desdemona for questioning. Desdemona tells her dad that she is married to the Moor, Othello. Brabantio then disowns Desdemona, his daughter which is a sign of Venice becoming un-civilized. This is showing un-civilization because in Venice it is highly unlikely for a white women to marry a black man and for a women to disobey her father’s orde rs. Since Shakespeare does not go into much detail about Othello’s background, it seems as if his homeland is unimportant. Othello is referred to as a Moor which is a common name given to those who are from Africa. 2. Since Shakespeare starts the play with Roderigo and Iago, it to give the audience important information the plot. They both contribute to the exposition because they help the audience understand the situation through Iago’s and Roderigo’s point of view. Iago is a very intelligent, manipulative man and Roderigo is a foolish, gullible and stupid. Iago relationship with Roderigo is that he is just using him Roderigo is devastated to learn that Desdemona had eloped with Othello, so Iago uses this too his advantage. In act 1 scene 3 Roderigo says, â€Å"What should I do? / I confess it is my shame to be so fond, but it is not in my virtue to amend it.† This quote shows Roderigo talking to Iago about his love for Desdemona. 3. Since Iago expected to be promoted to lieutenant, and Michael Cassio got the spot instead, Iago plotted his revenge against both Cassio and Othello. Iago was close with Othello at the beginning and throughout the play continues to pretend to be friends with him but is not. This shows how Iago is not very trustful. The following quote expresses Iago’s angry towards the situation. â€Å"Off-capped to him, and by the faith of man I know my price, I am worth no worse a place. But he (as loving his own pride and  purposes) Evades them with a bombast circumstance Horribly stuffed with epithets of war, And in conclusion Nonsuits my mediators. For ‘Certes,’ says he, ‘I have already chose my officer.’ And what was he? Forsooth, a great arithmetician, One Michael Cassio, a Florentine.† The following quote shows how upset Iago is with Michael Cassio getting the promotion, and this is the reason why Iago is angry with Othello. 4. Since Othello is a black man from an unidentified part of Northern Africa, he is seen as an outsider in Venice. He was once enslaved and has gone on many harsh battles and journeys in many parts of the world. Yet, Othello has a tendency to try and find the best in people and he trusts many until it is proven that he should no longer have faith in them. Othello is well known to be a good general due to his past experience in war and he is respectful towards people even when they are not respectful to him. This can be seen in the following quote when Brabantio is very rude and disrespectful to Othello but he responds saying, â€Å"Hold your hands, Both of you of my inclining and the rest†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This shows how he is raining calm in a very heated conversation. When Othello speaks and interacts with other characters he is respectful because he is an outsider and does not feel comfortable as he would in his homeland. By marrying Desdemona Othello is able to feel less like an out sider in the community in Venice and Cyprus. 5. Since Desdemona was sneaky about her love for Othello her father, Brabantio did not know about Othello and Desdemona seeing each other. Brabantio is awakened late at night by Roderigo and Iago yelling at him that there is a thief in his house who has stolen his daughter, Desdemona. Brabantio and Roderigo have a discussion about how the Moor and Desdemona are seeing each other. The following quote shows the conversation with Roderigo and Brabantio talking about Desdemona and the Moor. â€Å"Brabantio: Raise all my kindred. –Are they married think you? Roderigo: Truly, I think they are.† Act I Scene I Page 19 Lines 187-190. The quote shows how Roderigo is informing Brabantio that his daughter, Desdemona and Othello are married. Brabantio believes that the Moor casted a spell upon Desdemona in order for Desdemona to fall in love with Othello. This shows that at the time women were expected to love a man that her father would approve of. The following quote is a conversation between Brabantio and Othello. The quotation shows how Brabantio believes Othello placed a spell upon Desdemona so that she would fall in love with him. â€Å"Damned as thou art,  thou hast enchanted her!† Act I Scene II Page 25 Line 83. The quote shows how upset Brabantio is at Othello because Othello and Desdemona are together. The following quotation reveals how Desdemona and Brabantio react toward each other about the marriage. â€Å"Desdemona: I am hitherto your daughter. But here’s my husband†¦. Brabantio: God be with you! I have done.† Act I Scene III Page 41 Lines 213- 219. Brabantio could not accept the fact that Desdemona is in love with Othello. The quote shows how Brabantio tells Desdemona that he is disowning her and how he wants nothing to do with Desdemona anymore. It is important that Desdemona and her father separate at this time in the play because it allows Iago to put his plan of savage into action. Desdemona has no family anymore and now she is going to travel with Othello to a place of warfare. At this point in the play Desdemona is very vulnerable. 6. Othello’s and Desdemona’s understanding of their love and relationship are not equivalent to one another. Othello believes their love was founded upon his valiancy and torturous past. Desdemona feels that she fell for his sincerity and strength, thus intriguing her and gaining her love. When Othello must explain his love for Desdemona in the presence of her father and the Venetian council he explains he wooed her through his chivalrous stories and he loved her for her sympathy and aww, not because of qualities she possessed. He explained â€Å"My story being done, she gave me for my pains a world of sighs†¦ she thanked me and bade me, if I had a friend that loved her, I should but teach him how to tell my story, and that would woo her. Upon this hint I spake. She loved me for the dangers I had passed, and I loved her that she did pity them† (Act 1. Sc. 3).   He in the end loved her for stroking his ego and she loved him for his bravery and heart, though he lacked in humbleness. Othello and Desdemona do not share a reciprocated love for one another. 7. Because Iago and Othello are contrasting characters, their manners of speaking are very different. Othello’s character is very respectful to others. Even when he is being insulted, he remains calm. He is also very truthful and open with his words. On the other hand, Iago is duplicitous throughout Act 1. He often has double meanings behind his words. For example, he tells Brabantio, â€Å"An old black ram/ Is tupping your white ewe†. This is a crude way of telling Brabantio that Othello has married Desdemona. This shows the difference between the characters. It is also significant since Othello’s trusting nature is what  Iago will use to betray him. 8. When the Duke of Venice tells Brabantio, â€Å"Your son in law is more fair than black.† this shows that not everyone in Venice shares Brabantio’s views on Othello. The Duke wants Brabantio to look beneath his son in laws skin and see that he is fair and deserves to be respected. He Senators and the Duke admire Othello and that is why the Duke defended Othello when Brabantio accused his of using â€Å"witchcraft† on Desdemona. The Duke then responded and gave Othello the compliment that he is â€Å"fair†. This word is troubling because it makes people think about Othello’s race and how he is different from everyone else. Even the color of his skin has not prevented him from achieving high rank in the Venetian society. These achievements have earned Othello respect from the people around him. By reading the play Othello you are able to depict the Venetian society in depth. 9. Since Brarbantio’s says to Othello â€Å"She has deceived her father, and may thee,† it shows how Desdemona might betray Othello. This is very important because later in the play Othello thinks that Desdemona does betray him. The play show that women are viewed in society as being loose, and untrust worthy. 10. Since Othello is more of an outside he would fit in with the Turkish society. It is very important that Othello protects Cyprus because it communicates to the audience that the Venetian and the religion is superior, showing that Othello has much power. Act II 1. In Act 2 Shakespeare represents Cyprus as the land of partying and recklessness. This furthers the action of the play because it gives Iago a lead in his plan.Cyprus is described very highly by Othello in the following quote â€Å"How does my old acquaintance of this isle?—Honey, you shall be well desired in Cyprus, I have found great love amongst them. O my sweet†¦,† Shakespeare uses Cyprus because it’s the perfect place to help Iago get revenge on Othello without any suspicions being raised. In Cyprus everyone lets is excited that they do not have to fight in the war and have a lot of celebrations. This furthers the action because Iago gets Cassio drunk and Cassio’s lieutenancy gets stripped, the following quote shows Cassio upset that he got his lieutenancy taken away. â€Å"Reputation, reputation, Reputation! O, I have lost my reputation!† This builds suspense because the audience is starting to see how Iagos plan is slowly falling into place. 2. Since Cassio is handsome, trusting and brave he is a very unique character. He helped confort Desdemona when Othello was still at sea. The following quote showings how respectful, kind, and caring Cassio is to Desdemona, â€Å"Hail to thee, Lady and the grace of heaven†¦ He is not yet arrived, nor know I aught but that he’s well and will be shortly here.† This quote shows Cassios respect towards Desdemona and him calming her down about Othello not being present. 3. Cassio is manipulated by Iago because Iago is planning to ruin Cassio so he can get the place as lieutenant. Iago learns about Cassio’s weaknesses and uses them against him. This includes his drinking problem, which led to Cassio getting fired by Othello. Also Cassio’s reputation for with women sets the basis for how Iago convinced Othello that Cassio was interested in Desdemona. Iago knows that by getting Othello to think Desdemona is cheating on him, that he will become extremely distraught. Iago uses Brabantio’s words to sway Othello’s thoughts throughout the text. In the beginning, Brabantio said â€Å"Look to her, Moor, if thou hast eyes to see: She has deceived her father, and may thee.† Which means, she deceived me and she will most likely do it to you too. 4. As the audience reads through Act II Iago’s plan begins to unfold. It is also revealed to the audience that Iago has a way of identifying other characters weaknesses and then manipulating these weaknesses to his advantage. As Iago begins to share his plans and ideas the audience receives more insight into the plot of the story and what Iago has in mind next. Iago deceives people by always making them believe that he is keeping their best interest in mind. By having the other characters believe that he is â€Å"honest Iago,† as the characters come to call him, he is then able to persuade them to believe something or do something else that will help Iago with his plan. Iago is revealed to be a sly character with only his own interests in mind. A quote from Othello when Iago is speaking falsely is, â€Å"I had rather have this tongue cut from my mouth/ Than it should do offense to Micheal Cassio.† (Othello, Verses 236-237) This quote shows the readers how Iago sa ys one thing to other characters, when the audience knows that he wants to get rid of Micheal Cassio. Even though the audience knows that Iago is speaking falsely, the other characters in the play still have no suspicion about Iago’s plan of revenge. This dialogue is one way that we learn more  about Iago in the second act. 5. Since Cassio and Iago are foils, the language they use to speak to others are very different. Cassio speaks more respectfully while Iago is rude and wit. For example the following quote shows how Cassio is speaking very highly and respectful when talking to Desdemona. â€Å"Hail to thee, lady, and the grace of heaven, before, behind thee, and on every hand Enwheel thee round.† (Act 2 Scene 1 Page 65 Lines 94-96) In contrast, Iago is very disrespectful to women especially to his wife, Emilia. The following quote shows Iago yelling at his wife to be quite. â€Å"Go to! Charm your tounge†¦.What, are you mad? I charge you to get home.† (Act 5 Scene 2 Page 251 Lines 222 and 231) The quote shows how Iago’s dictions is far more ill-mannered in contrast to Cassio’s language. Act III 1. In the beginning of Act 3, Scene 3 Othello is madly in love with Desdemona, but towards the end he becomes full of jealousy. Othello believes that Desdemona has had an affair with his once loyal lieutenant, Cassio. The reason he trust in such lies is because his good friend, Iago, has convinced Othello of Desdemona’s dishonesty. Iago persuades Othello by feeding him false grotesque images of Cassio and Desdemona and Gplants Desdemona’s handkerchief, a gift from Othello, in Cassio’s room. â€Å"I know not that; but such a handkerchief- / I am sure it was your wife’s – did today / See Cassio wipe his beard with† (Act 3, Sc. 3). What is most surprising is Othello, who quickly believes Iago’s statements. Othello, obviously not completely trusting Desdemona to be faithful, was most likely led to this paranoia after Desdemona’s father, Brabantio, planted the thought of her betraying Othello after Brabantio was betrayed by Desdemona himself. With this proof, Othello has no option but to believe Iago and his persuasive and duplicitous dialogue. 2. Emilia develops a close relationship with Desdemona. Emilia and Desdemona bond over husband trouble: Emilia’s bitter take on her married life with Iago contrasts with Desdemona’s marriage to Othello. Emilia is honest even though she caused the mess with Desdemona murder, but she redeems herself, or at least gives a good shot at trying. Emilia who discovers the truth about Iago’s plotting and tries to reveal it. Emilia’s relationship with Iago is not strong, and Iago uses Emilia as his tool. Iago  has no ability to love someone or something. This quote is proof that her husband uses her, â€Å"The ills we do, their ills (husbands’) instruct us so?†(Act 3) 3. In the play Othello, Shakespeare uses a love token, Desdemona’s handkerchief to symbolize a relationship between two people. Othello gave Desdemona a handkerchief, as a gift that represented their marriage bond itself. One problem that the handkerchief causes is that it was handled by almost everyone in the play. The main thing the handkerchief symbolizes is Desdemona’s fidelity for Othello. When Cassio gets ahold of the handkerchief, Othello feels as though Desdemona has been unfaithful to him. When Desdemona is trying to ease Othello’s headache she drops her handkerchief. Emilia picks it up and gives it to Iago, her husband so she could get on his good side. â€Å"I am glad I have found this napkin. This was her first remembrance from the Moor. My wayward husband hath a hundred times wooed me to steal it. But she so loves the token.† (Act 3 Scene 3 Lines 334 to 337) Iago then tells Othello that Cassio has wiped his beard with Desdemona’s handke rchief and that’s when they decide to kill both Desdemona and Cassio. Desdemona continues to look for her lost handkerchief and when Othello asks for it, she gets even more nervous. With Desdemona’s handkerchief it made all of Iago’s plan to come togethe Othello Questions Act IV 1. The handkerchief of all things plays a key and important role in act four because it is what leads Othello to believe that Cassio has slept with Desdemona. â€Å"Handkerchief – confession- handkerchief – to confess and be hanged for his labor† (Act 4 Scene 1) this quote by Othello explains his thoughts towards Cassio and Desdemona seeing each other. Othello becomes very upset because the handkerchief was the first gift from Othello to Desdemona to represent his love for her. 2. Othello’s character is changing by in the beginning of the play Othello begins as a noble guy who is a respected war hero, and loving husband. Towards the end of the play Othello becomes violent and insanely jealous husband who murders his own wife after Iago convinces him that Desdemona has been unfaithful. The following quote shows Desdemona being slapped by Othello â€Å"Othello: I am glad to see you mad. Desdemona: Why, sweet Othello! Othello: [Striking her] Devil!† This shows  how Othello slowly becomes less respectful towards Desdemona which is how his character is changing. 3. The effect when Othello slapped his wife Desdemona in public was that he was becoming an insane man and that he wasn’t fit to be the general anymore. Also the slap brought humiliation upon Othello because no one thought he would slap his wife that he was so loving and gentle towards. The following quote shows Lodovico speaking with Iago about Othellos behavior. â€Å"Is this the noble Moor whom our full senate Call all in all sufficient? Is this the nature Whom passion could not shake? Whose solid virtue The shot of accident nor dart of chance Could neither graze nor pierce?† When people saw this, they began to question Othello’s judgment. This reveals the change in character within Othello. He went from a loving, nice leader unto an angry, abusive man. 4. The contrasting characters; Desdemona and Emilia, form an interesting and important relationship in the play Othello. Desdemona is very ‘sheltered’ from the ways of the world and Emilia is very ‘down to earth’ and ‘experienced’. They have very different views on marriage Emilia states she would commit adultery if it gained her husband. The following quote shows their conversation. â€Å"Emilia: In troth, I think I should, and undo ’t when I had done. Marry, I would not do such a thing for a joint-ring, nor for measures of lawn, nor for gowns, petticoats, nor caps, nor any petty exhibition. But for the whole world? Why, who would not make her husband a cuckold to make him a monarch? I should venture purgatory for ’t. Desdemona: Beshrew me, if I would do such a wrong for the whole world† .Desdemona states that she is loyal to her husband. One thing that is similar about these marriages is the lack of trust and patience reve al the fragileness of the marriage. This scene shows the women’s private life and how they are not always the way the display themselves. Othello Questions Act V 1. Othello kills Desdemona because he was convinced by Iago that she was cheating on him with Cassio. He doesn’t want to have to kill her because she is the love of his life, but Othello feels so betrayed, upset, and angry that he thinks it’s the best solution. The audience knows that Desdemona was always completely loyal to Othello and never had a relationship with Cassio.  Othello thinks that he is solving the problem but really he is making a huge mistake. He is so distraught over having murdered her, that he kills himself as well. â€Å"Yet I’ll not shed her blood; Nor scar that whiter skin of hers than snow, And smooth as monumental alabaster. Yet she must die, else she’ll betray more men. Put out the light, and then put out the light: If I quench thee, thou flaming minister, I can again thy former light restore, Should I repent me: but once put out thy light, Thou cunning’st pattern of excelling nature, I know not where is that Promethean h eat That can thy light relume. When I have pluck’d the rose, I cannot give it vital growth again. It must needs wither: I’ll smell it on the tree† The quote shows how he was struggling with choosing if he should kill her or not to. 2. After the death of Desdemona, Emilia begins to figure out Iago’s plan. Once Emilia is able to figure it while talking with, she begans to realize her husband’s true self. Before Iago was not very pleasant toward his wife, Emilia, but she never said anything about it because women were supposed to be obedient Emilia starts to speak out because she is upset of Desdemona’s murder. Emilia says, â€Å"Do thy worst.† To Othello as he pulls out his sword on her even though she is unarmed but he is mad because she is defying a man and that was not allowed during that time period. Women were expected to be compliant, which is shown to later when Emilia says, â€Å"I will not charm my tongue, I am bound to speak.† This quote shows how women were not supposed to give their input into things. Because Emilia finally stood up for herself and others, consequently she was killed by Iago. 3. Before Othello kills himself he gives a long speech about how he should be remembered. For example he wants to be remembered as a person who loves strongly but not wisely. After he stabs himself he kisses Desdemona because before he killed her he kissed her and wants to do the same for himself. The following quotation shows this. â€Å"I kissed thee ere I killed thee. No way but this, Killing myself, to die upon a kiss.† Act V Scene II Page 265 Lines 420-421. He does confess to killing Desdemona and regrets it greatly. The Play as a whole 1. When Iago is describing his vengeful plan against Othello to his loyal companion, Roderigo, he explains that he is not what he will disguise  himself to be. The quote â€Å"I am not what I am† (Act 1, Sc. 1) told by Iago could also apply to more than one of the characters. Desdemona, portrayed by her father as a timid and naà ¯ve child, is the one who betrays his trust by eloping with â€Å"The Moor†, Othello. â€Å"Your daughter, if you have not given her leave, / I say again, hath made a gross revolt, / Tying her duty, beauty, wit, and fortunes / In an extravagant and wheeling stranger† (Act 1, Sc. 1). Therefore, in the text, Iago is not the only character who pretends to be something they are not in order to trick someone else and disguise their underlying plans. 2. Since Iago destroyed Othello’s life very cruelly, it is likely that he had several motives for his deception. In the beginning, Iago states that he felt betrayed that Othello had promoted Cassio to the position he felt he deserved. This was probably a large factor of his deception, since Cassio was targeted for murder in Iago’s plot. Another motive was that there were rumors about Othello sleeping with Iago’s wife, Emilia. Iago also causes Desdemona’s death, saying, â€Å"Nothing can or shall content my soul / Till I am evened with him, wife for wife†. In the end, jealousy of Othello seems to be Iago’s motive. He is jealous of Cassio’s promotion, jealous of Othello’s beautiful wife and feels betrayed by Othello. 3. During this play Iago is able to manipulate Othello threw his weaknesses which are self doubt, his race and that he is madly in love with Desdemona. Iago uses all of the characters weaknesses to catapult their downfall. Mostly, he wants Othello to pay for what he did by making Cassio lieutenant and not him. From the beginning of the play, Iago proclaimed that he would make Othello pay by saying, â€Å"I am not what I am.† (Act 1 Scene 1 Line 71) Othello is prone to jealously is afraid that Desdemona will leave him for a Venetian man. This also plays into his race because he always feels like an outsider throughout the whole play. One reason Othello was manipulated so easily was because of all the â€Å"proof† Iago was giving him. When Iago was telling him this information, Othello should have gone to figure out if it was true; if Othello would have noticed Iago was being dishonest. Desdemona ended up paying for Othello gullibility when Othello smothered her with a pi llow. Racial tension is heavy during the play because they really want to emphasize that Othello is an outsider and doesn’t belong in Venice. The only reason Othello has power is because he is the General, but even though he is the general he still is modest. When  talking to the Duke in Act 1 Scene 3 he starts off explaining how he is a bad poet but then says this elaborate and long explanation about his and Desdemona’s love. From the beginning to the end Iago was able to manipulate everyone because they were all caught up in somebody or something else. 4. Since Emilia and Desdemona had different viewpoints on love, the play does not suggest whether or not Emilia or Desdemona is correct. Emilia and Iago’s relationship was not very loving, also Emilia said she would cheat on her husband which indirectly states she is not loyal to him. In contrast, Desdemona is very loyal and loving towards Othello, even after she was done wrong by him she was still loyal. This can be shown in the following quote when Desdemona is dying after Othello kills her â€Å"Desdemona: A guiltless death I die. Emilia: O, who hath done this deed? Desdemona: Nobody, I myself.† This shows how she still is remaining loyal to Othello by not saying that he killed her. 5. Othello’s heroic and military proficiency allow him partial acceptance into Venetian society. This acceptance is temporary because he doesn’t feel that he has been embraced by Venetian Society, he is both an insider and an outsider. On one hand, he is a Christian and experienced military leader, commanding respect from the Duke, and many Venetian citizens. On the other hand, being a black Moor and a foreigner in Venice also subjects Othello to some racism epically by Brabantio and Iago. The following quote shows Iago describing Othello and Desdemona’s relationship â€Å"Even now, now, very now, an old black ram ewe. Arise, arise; devil will make a grandsire of you. Is tupping your white Awake the snorting citizens with the bell, Arise I say!† The quote shows a racial slur toward Othello. 6. The addition of Bianca, causes her to be more of a women stereotype. Cassio does not mistreat his wife unlike Iago and Othello. Bianca is not seen as much throughout the play. On the other hand, Desdemona is a brave and beautiful woman who stood up to her father, and traveled with her husband. Desdemona and Othello have a very strong relationship at the beginning of the play. Othello starts out very respectful towards his wife, but slowly is rude to her. Emilia and Iago are married, but Iago does not respect Emilia and he treats her badly, he says â€Å"To have a foolish wife.† He does not have any respect for her. Iago says rude things to Emilia and all  she does is try and please him. All three of the women have one thing in common, they all end up without a husband at the end of the play. 7. The play does reinforce racial stereotypes. For example, Othello is addressed as a moor, making it seem as though he isn’t at the same level as them in the social hierarchy. The following quote is an example of when Othello is referred to as the Moor. â€Å"Is this the noble Moor?† Even though he is called the noble Moor is he not address by name, which makes him seem more of an outsider. 8. I believe that we should admire Desdemona for her love. She did everything she could to make Othello happy. It is very unfortunate that Iago was able to manipulate Othello into thinking he had to kill her for something that she didn’t do. â€Å"I kiss’d thee ere I kill’d thee: no way but this; 359 Killing myself, to die upon a kiss.† 9. Shakespeare has placed a very small amount of action in the play and instead placed a large amount of dialogue. Shakespeare’s reasoning behind this use of dialogue is to affect the reader by allowing them to get to know the characters more. This allows the characters to be characterized by what they say and by what other characters say about them. The readers then go through and are preserved through the eyes of others, mostly Iago, and this allows Shakespeare to help and give certain information to the audience. Also, the reader learns a lot about the characters through dialogue and dialogue helps the reader to feel more involved in the play. When Iago says, â€Å"I am not what I am,† the audience is able to feel more involved and to get more information regarding Iago’s characterization than in other parts of the play. 10. Because Iago is trying to get revenge on Othello for not being promoted, the main theme of the text would be jealousy. Iago is jealous of Cassio that he got the promotion to become lieutenant. The following quote shows how Iago is upset that he was not promoted. â€Å"I know my price, I am worth no worse a place†¦ say he, ‘I have already chose my officer.’ And what was he? Forsooth, a great arithmetician one Michael Cassio†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Act 1 Scene 1 Page 7 Lines 12-21) The quote shows how jealous Iago is that Othello chose Michael Cassio to be lieutenant. Another way Othello by William Shakespeare, shows jealousy is when Othello kills his wife because he thinks that she is cheating on him. It seems that Desdemona is cheating on Othello with Cassio, but she is not. Sadly Othello does not know that it is Iago’s plan to get revenge on Othello. Consequently, Othello kills his own wife. The following quote  shows when Othello confronts his wife about seei ng Cassio, also the quote shows Othello killing his wife. â€Å"By heaven, I saw my handkerchief in ’s hand. O perjured woman, thou dost stone my heart, (Act 5 Scene 2 Page 241 Lines 77-78) ‘Twas I that killed her.† (Act 5 Scene 2 Page 247 Line 160) This quote shows how Othello was jealous that Desdemona was with other guys. Since the plot revolves around jealousy it is appropriate that the main theme in this text would be jealously.

Heat Exchanger

Heat exchanger An interchangeable plate heat exchanger Tubular heat exchanger. A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer from one medium to another. The media may be separated by a solid wall, so that they never mix, or they may be in direct contact. [1] They are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power plants, chemical plants, petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries, natural gas processing, and sewage treatment.The classic example of a heat exchanger is found in an internal combustion engine in which a circulating fluid known as engine coolant flows through radiator coils and air flows past the coils, which cools the coolant and heats the incoming air. Contents| Flow arrangement Countercurrent (A) and parallel (B) flows * Fig. 1: Shell and tube heat exchanger, single pass (1–1 parallel flow) * Fig. 2: Shell and tube heat exchanger, 2-pass tube side (1–2 crossflow) * Fig. : Shell and tube heat exchanger, 2- pass shell side, 2-pass tube side (2-2 countercurrent) There are three primary classifications of heat exchangers according to their flow arrangement. In parallel-flow heat exchangers, the two fluids enter the exchanger at the same end, and travel in parallel to one another to the other side. In counter-flow heat exchangers the fluids enter the exchanger from opposite ends. The counter current design is the most efficient, in that it can transfer the most heat from the heat (transfer) medium due to the fact that the average temperature difference along any unit length is greater.See countercurrent exchange. In a cross-flow heat exchanger, the fluids travel roughly perpendicular to one another through the exchanger. For efficiency, heat exchangers are designed to maximize the surface area of the wall between the two fluids, while minimizing resistance to fluid flow through the exchanger. The exchanger's performance can also be affected by the addition of fins or corrugations in one o r both directions, which increase surface area and may channel fluid flow or induce turbulence. The driving temperature across the heat transfer surface varies with position, but an appropriate mean temperature can be defined.In most simple systems this is the â€Å"log mean temperature difference† (LMTD). Sometimes direct knowledge of the LMTD is not available and the NTU method is used. Types of heat exchangers Shell and tube heat exchanger A Shell and Tube heat exchanger Main article: Shell and tube heat exchanger Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of a series of tubes. One set of these tubes contains the fluid that must be either heated or cooled. The second fluid runs over the tubes that are being heated or cooled so that it can either provide the heat or absorb the heat required.A set of tubes is called the tube bundle and can be made up of several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc. Shell and tube heat exchangers are typically used for high-pressure applications (with pressures greater than 30 bar and temperatures greater than 260  Ã‚ °C). [2] This is because the shell and tube heat exchangers are robust due to their shape. Several thermal design features must be considered when designing the tubes in the shell and tube heat exchangers: * Tube diameter: Using a small tube diameter makes the heat exchanger both economical and compact.However, it is more likely for the heat exchanger to foul up faster and the small size makes mechanical cleaning of the fouling difficult. To prevail over the fouling and cleaning problems, larger tube diameters can be used. Thus to determine the tube diameter, the available space, cost and the fouling nature of the fluids must be considered. * Tube thickness: The thickness of the wall of the tubes is usually determined to ensure: * There is enough room for corrosion * That flow-induced vibration has resistance * Axial strength * Availability of spare parts Hoop strength (to withstand internal tub e pressure) * Buckling strength (to withstand overpressure in the shell) * Tube length: heat exchangers are usually cheaper when they have a smaller shell diameter and a long tube length. Thus, typically there is an aim to make the heat exchanger as long as physically possible whilst not exceeding production capabilities. However, there are many limitations for this, including space available at the installation site and the need to ensure tubes are available in lengths that are twice the required length (so they can be withdrawn and replaced).Also, long, thin tubes are difficult to take out and replace. * Tube pitch: when designing the tubes, it is practical to ensure that the tube pitch (i. e. , the centre-centre distance of adjoining tubes) is not less than 1. 25 times the tubes' outside diameter. A larger tube pitch leads to a larger overall shell diameter, which leads to a more expensive heat exchanger. * Tube corrugation: this type of tubes, mainly used for the inner tubes, in creases the turbulence of the fluids and the effect is very important in the heat transfer giving a better performance. Tube Layout: refers to how tubes are positioned within the shell. There are four main types of tube layout, which are, triangular (30 °), rotated triangular (60 °), square (90 °) and rotated square (45 °). The triangular patterns are employed to give greater heat transfer as they force the fluid to flow in a more turbulent fashion around the piping. Square patterns are employed where high fouling is experienced and cleaning is more regular. * Baffle Design: baffles are used in shell and tube heat exchangers to direct fluid across the tube bundle.They run perpendicularly to the shell and hold the bundle, preventing the tubes from sagging over a long length. They can also prevent the tubes from vibrating. The most common type of baffle is the segmental baffle. The semicircular segmental baffles are oriented at 180 degrees to the adjacent baffles forcing the f luid to flow upward and downwards between the tube bundle. Baffle spacing is of large thermodynamic concern when designing shell and tube heat exchangers. Baffles must be spaced with consideration for the conversion of pressure drop and heat transfer.For thermo economic optimization it is suggested that the baffles be spaced no closer than 20% of the shell’s inner diameter. Having baffles spaced too closely causes a greater pressure drop because of flow redirection. Consequently having the baffles spaced too far apart means that there may be cooler spots in the corners between baffles. It is also important to ensure the baffles are spaced close enough that the tubes do not sag. The other main type of baffle is the disc and donut baffle, which consists of two concentric baffles. An outer, wider baffle looks like a donut, whilst the inner baffle is shaped like a disk.This type of baffle forces the fluid to pass around each side of the disk then through the donut baffle generati ng a different type of fluid flow. Fixed tube liquid-cooled heat exchangers especially suitable for marine and harsh applications can be assembled with brass shells, copper tubes, brass baffles, and forged brass integral end hubs. [3] (See: Copper in heat exchangers). Conceptual diagram of a plate and frame heat exchanger. A single plate heat exchanger An interchangeable plate heat exchanger applied to the system of a swimming pool Plate heat exchanger Main article: Plate heat exchangerAnother type of heat exchanger is the plate heat exchanger. One is composed of multiple, thin, slightly separated plates that have very large surface areas and fluid flow passages for heat transfer. This stacked-plate arrangement can be more effective, in a given space, than the shell and tube heat exchanger. Advances in gasket and brazing technology have made the plate-type heat exchanger increasingly practical. In HVAC applications, large heat exchangers of this type are called plate-and-frame; when used in open loops, these heat exchangers are normally of the gasket type to allow periodic disassembly, cleaning, and inspection.There are many types of permanently bonded plate heat exchangers, such as dip-brazed, vacuum-brazed, and welded plate varieties, and they are often specified for closed-loop applications such as refrigeration. Plate heat exchangers also differ in the types of plates that are used, and in the configurations of those plates. Some plates may be stamped with â€Å"chevron†, dimpled, or other patterns, where others may have machined fins and/or grooves. Plate and shell heat exchanger A third type of heat exchanger is a plate and shell heat exchanger, which combines plate heat exchanger with shell and tube heat exchanger technologies.The heart of the heat exchanger contains a fully welded circular plate pack made by pressing and cutting round plates and welding them together. Nozzles carry flow in and out of the platepack (the ‘Plate side' flowpat h). The fully welded platepack is assembled into an outer shell that creates a second flowpath ( the ‘Shell side'). Plate and shell technology offers high heat transfer, high pressure, high operating temperature, compact size, low fouling and close approach temperature. In particular, it does completely without gaskets, which provides security against leakage at high pressures and temperatures.Adiabatic wheel heat exchanger A fourth type of heat exchanger uses an intermediate fluid or solid store to hold heat, which is then moved to the other side of the heat exchanger to be released. Two examples of this are adiabatic wheels, which consist of a large wheel with fine threads rotating through the hot and cold fluids, and fluid heat exchangers. Plate fin heat exchanger Main article: Plate fin heat exchanger This type of heat exchanger uses â€Å"sandwiched† passages containing fins to increase the effectiveness of the unit.The designs include crossflow and counterflow cou pled with various fin configurations such as straight fins, offset fins and wavy fins. Plate and fin heat exchangers are usually made of aluminium alloys, which provide high heat transfer efficiency. The material enables the system to operate at a lower temperature and reduce the weight of the equipment. Plate and fin heat exchangers are mostly used for low temperature services such as natural gas, helium and oxygen liquefaction plants, air separation plants and transport industries such as motor and aircraft engines. Advantages of plate and fin heat exchangers: High heat transfer efficiency especially in gas treatment * Larger heat transfer area * Approximately 5 times lighter in weight than that of shell and tube heat exchanger. * Able to withstand high pressure Disadvantages of plate and fin heat exchangers: * Might cause clogging as the pathways are very narrow * Difficult to clean the pathways * Aluminum alloys are susceptible to Mercury Liquid Embrittlement Failure Pillow plat e heat exchanger A pillow plate exchanger is commonly used in the dairy industry for cooling milk in large direct-expansion stainless steel bulk tanks.The pillow plate allows for cooling across nearly the entire surface area of the tank, without gaps that would occur between pipes welded to the exterior of the tank. The pillow plate is constructed using a thin sheet of metal spot-welded to the surface of another thicker sheet of metal. The thin plate is welded in a regular pattern of dots or with a serpentine pattern of weld lines. After welding the enclosed space is pressurized with sufficient force to cause the thin metal to bulge out around the welds, providing a space for heat exchanger liquids to flow, and creating a characteristic appearance of a swelled pillow formed out of metal.Fluid heat exchangers This is a heat exchanger with a gas passing upwards through a shower of fluid (often water), and the fluid is then taken elsewhere before being cooled. This is commonly used for cooling gases whilst also removing certain impurities, thus solving two problems at once. It is widely used in espresso machines as an energy-saving method of cooling super-heated water to use in the extraction of espresso. Waste heat recovery units A Waste Heat Recovery Unit (WHRU) is a heat exchanger that recovers heat from a hot gas stream while transferring it to a working medium, typically water or oils.The hot gas stream can be the exhaust gas from a gas turbine or a diesel engine or a waste gas from industry or refinery. They can also be integrated into a heatcatcher system that allows an ORC[further explanation needed] generator to produce waste heat to power. Dynamic scraped surface heat exchanger Another type of heat exchanger is called â€Å"(dynamic) scraped surface heat exchanger†. This is mainly used for heating or cooling with high-viscosity products, crystallization processes, evaporation and high-fouling applications.Long running times are achieved due to th e continuous scraping of the surface, thus avoiding fouling and achieving a sustainable heat transfer rate during the process. Phase-change heat exchangers Typical kettle reboiler used for industrial distillation towers Typical water-cooled surface condenser In addition to heating up or cooling down fluids in just a single phase, heat exchangers can be used either to heat a liquid to evaporate (or boil) it or used as condensers to cool a vapor and condense it to a liquid. In chemical plants and refineries, reboilers used to heat incoming feed for distillation towers are often heat exchangers. 4][5] Distillation set-ups typically use condensers to condense distillate vapors back into liquid. Power plants that use steam-driven turbines commonly use heat exchangers to boil water into steam. Heat exchangers or similar units for producing steam from water are often called boilers or steam generators. In the nuclear power plants called pressurized water reactors, special large heat exchan gers pass heat from the primary (reactor plant) system to the secondary (steam plant) system, producing steam from water in the process. These are called steam generators.All fossil-fueled and nuclear power plants using steam-driven turbines have surface condensers to convert the exhaust steam from the turbines into condensate (water) for re-use. [6][7] To conserve energy and cooling capacity in chemical and other plants, regenerative heat exchangers can transfer heat from a stream that must be cooled to another stream that must be heated, such as distillate cooling and reboiler feed pre-heating. This term can also refer to heat exchangers that contain a material within their structure that has a change of phase.This is usually a solid to liquid phase due to the small volume difference between these states. This change of phase effectively acts as a buffer because it occurs at a constant temperature but still allows for the heat exchanger to accept additional heat. One example where this has been investigated is for use in high power aircraft electronics. Direct contact heat exchangers Direct contact heat exchangers involve heat transfer between hot and cold streams of two phases in the absence of a separating wall. [8] Thus such heat exchangers can be classified as: * Gas – liquid * Immiscible liquid – liquid Solid-liquid or solid – gas Most direct contact heat exchangers fall under the Gas- Liquid category, where heat is transferred between a gas and liquid in the form of drops, films or sprays. [2] Such types of heat exchangers are used predominantly in air conditioning, humidification, industrial hot water heating, water cooling and condensing plants. [9] Phases[10]| Continuous phase| Driving force| Change of phase| Examples| Gas – Liquid| Gas| Gravity| No| Spray columns, packed columns| | | | Yes| Cooling towers, falling droplet evaporators| | | Forced| No| Spray coolers/quenchers| | Liquid flow| Yes| Spray condensers/evaporati on, jet condensers| | Liquid| Gravity| No| Bubble columns, perforated tray columns| | | | Yes| Bubble column condensers| | | Forced| No| Gas spargers| | | Gas flow| Yes| Direct contact evaporators, submerged combustion| HVAC air coils One of the widest uses of heat exchangers is for air conditioning of buildings and vehicles. This class of heat exchangers is commonly called air coils, or just coils due to their often-serpentine internal tubing. Liquid-to-air, or air-to-liquid HVAC coils are typically of modified crossflow arrangement. In vehicles, heat coils are often called heater cores.On the liquid side of these heat exchangers, the common fluids are water, a water-glycol solution, steam, or a refrigerant. For heating coils, hot water and steam are the most common, and this heated fluid is supplied by boilers, for example. For cooling coils, chilled water and refrigerant are most common. Chilled water is supplied from a chiller that is potentially located very far away, but refri gerant must come from a nearby condensing unit. When a refrigerant is used, the cooling coil is the evaporator in the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle. HVAC coils that use this direct-expansion of refrigerants are commonly called DX coils.Some DX coils are â€Å"microchannel† type. [11] On the air side of HVAC coils a significant difference exists between those used for heating, and those for cooling. Due to psychrometrics, air that is cooled often has moisture condensing out of it, except with extremely dry air flows. Heating some air increases that airflow's capacity to hold water. So heating coils need not consider moisture condensation on their air-side, but cooling coils must be adequately designed and selected to handle their particular latent (moisture) as well as the sensible (cooling) loads.The water that is removed is called condensate. For many climates, water or steam HVAC coils can be exposed to freezing conditions. Because water expands upon freezing, these somewhat expensive and difficult to replace thin-walled heat exchangers can easily be damaged or destroyed by just one freeze. As such, freeze protection of coils is a major concern of HVAC designers, installers, and operators. The introduction of indentations placed within the heat exchange fins controlled condensation, allowing water molecules to remain in the cooled air.This invention allowed for refrigeration without icing of the cooling mechanism. [12] The heat exchangers in direct-combustion furnaces, typical in many residences, are not ‘coils'. They are, instead, gas-to-air heat exchangers that are typically made of stamped steel sheet metal. The combustion products pass on one side of these heat exchangers, and air to heat on the other. A cracked heat exchanger is therefore a dangerous situation that requires immediate attention because combustion products may enter living space. Spiral heat exchangers Schematic drawing of a spiral heat exchanger.A spiral heat exchang er (SHE), may refer to a helical (coiled) tube configuration, more generally, the term refers to a pair of flat surfaces that are coiled to form the two channels in a counter-flow arrangement. Each of the two channels has one long curved path. A pair of fluid ports are connected tangentially to the outer arms of the spiral, and axial ports are common, but optional. [13] The main advantage of the SHE is its highly efficient use of space. This attribute is often leveraged and partially reallocated to gain other improvements in performance, according to well known tradeoffs in heat exchanger design. A notable tradeoff is capital cost vs operating cost. ) A compact SHE may be used to have a smaller footprint and thus lower all-around capital costs, or an over-sized SHE may be used to have less pressure drop, less pumping energy, higher thermal efficiency, and lower energy costs. Construction The distance between the sheets in the spiral channels are maintained by using spacer studs that were welded prior to rolling. Once the main spiral pack has been rolled, alternate top and bottom edges are welded and each end closed by a gasketed flat or conical cover bolted to the body.This ensures no mixing of the two fluids occurs. Any leakage is from the periphery cover to the atmosphere, or to a passage that contains the same fluid. [14] Self cleaning SHEs are often used in the heating of fluids that contain solids and thus tend to foul the inside of the heat exchanger. The low pressure drop lets the SHE handle fouling more easily. The SHE uses a â€Å"self cleaning† mechanism, whereby fouled surfaces cause a localized increase in fluid velocity, thus increasing the drag (or fluid friction) on the fouled surface, thus helping to dislodge the blockage and keep the heat exchanger clean. The internal walls that make up the heat transfer surface are often rather thick, which makes the SHE very robust, and able to last a long time in demanding environments. † They are also easily cleaned, opening out like an oven where any build up of foulant can be removed by pressure washing. Self-Cleaning Water filters are used to keep the system clean and running without the need to shut down or replace cartridges and bags. Flow arrangements Concurrent and countercurrent flow. There are three main types of flows in a spiral heat exchanger: 1. Counter-current Flow: Fluids flow in opposite directions.These are used for liquid-liquid, condensing and gas cooling applications. Units are usually mounted vertically when condensing vapour and mounted horizontally when handling high concentrations of solids. 2. Spiral Flow/Cross Flow: One fluid is in spiral flow and the other in a cross flow. Spiral flow passages are welded at each side for this type of spiral heat exchanger. This type of flow is suitable for handling low density gas, which passes through the cross flow, avoiding pressure loss. It can be used for liquid-liquid applications if one liquid has a cons iderably greater flow rate than the other. . Distributed Vapour/Spiral flow: This design is that of a condenser, and is usually mounted vertically. It is designed to cater for the sub-cooling of both condensate and non-condensables. The coolant moves in a spiral and leaves via the top. Hot gases that enter leave as condensate via the bottom outlet. Applications The SHE is good for applications such as pasteurization, digester heating, heat recovery, pre-heating (see: recuperator), and effluent cooling. For sludge treatment, SHEs are generally smaller than other types of heat exchangers. [citation needed] SelectionDue to the many variables involved, selecting optimal heat exchangers is challenging. Hand calculations are possible, but many iterations are typically needed. As such, heat exchangers are most often selected via computer programs, either by system designers, who are typically engineers, or by equipment vendors. To select an appropriate heat exchanger, the system designers (or equipment vendors) would firstly consider the design limitations for each heat exchanger type. Though cost is often the primary criterion, several other selection criteria are important: * High/low pressure limits * Thermal performance Temperature ranges * Product mix (liquid/liquid, particulates or high-solids liquid) * Pressure drops across the exchanger * Fluid flow capacity * Cleanability, maintenance and repair * Materials required for construction * Ability and ease of future expansion * Material selection, such as copper, aluminum, carbon steel, stainless steel, nickel alloys, and titanium. Small-diameter coil technologies are becoming more popular in modern air conditioning and refrigeration systems because they have better rates of heat transfer than conventional sized condenser and evaporator coils with round copper tubes and aluminium or opper fin that have been the standard in the HVAC industry. Small diameter coils can withstand the higher pressures required by the new generation of environmentally friendlier refrigerants. Two small diameter coil technologies are currently available for air conditioning and refrigeration products: copper microgroove[15] and brazed aluminium microchannel. [16] Choosing the right heat exchanger (HX) requires some knowledge of the different heat exchanger types, as well as the environment where the unit must operate.Typically in the manufacturing industry, several differing types of heat exchangers are used for just the one process or system to derive the final product. For example, a kettle HX for pre-heating, a double pipe HX for the ‘carrier’ fluid and a plate and frame HX for final cooling. With sufficient knowledge of heat exchanger types and operating requirements, an appropriate selection can be made to optimise the process. [17] Monitoring and maintenance Online monitoring of commercial heat exchangers is done by tracking the overall heat transfer coefficient. The overall heat transfer coeffi cient tends to decline over time due to fouling.U=Q/A? Tlm By periodically calculating the overall heat transfer coefficient from exchanger flow rates and temperatures, the owner of the heat exchanger can estimate when cleaning the heat exchanger is economically attractive. Integrity inspection of plate and tubular heat exchanger can be tested in situ by the conductivity or helium gas methods. These methods confirm the integrity of the plates or tubes to prevent any cross contamination and the condition of the gaskets. Mechanical integrity monitoring of heat exchanger tubes may be conducted through Nondestructive methods such as eddy current testing.Fouling Main article: Fouling A heat exchanger in a steam power station contaminated with macrofouling. Fouling occurs when impurities deposit on the heat exchange surface. Deposition of these impurities can decrease heat transfer effectiveness significantly over time and are caused by: * Low wall shear stress * Low fluid velocities * Hi gh fluid velocities * Reaction product solid precipitation * Precipitation of dissolved impurities due to elevated wall temperatures The rate of heat exchanger fouling is determined by the rate of particle deposition less re-entrainment/suppression.This model was originally proposed in 1959 by Kern and Seaton. Crude Oil Exchanger Fouling. In commercial crude oil refining, crude oil is heated from 21  °C to 343  °C prior to entering the distillation column. A series of shell and tube heat exchangers typically exchange heat between crude oil and other oil streams to heat the crude to 260  °C prior to heating in a furnace. Fouling occurs on the crude side of these exchangers due to asphaltene insolubility. The nature of asphaltene solubility in crude oil was successfully modeled by Wiehe and Kennedy. 18] The precipitation of insoluble asphaltenes in crude preheat trains has been successfully modeled as a first order reaction by Ebert and Panchal[19] who expanded on the work of Ke rn and Seaton. Cooling Water Fouling. Cooling water systems are susceptible to fouling. Cooling water typically has a high total dissolved solids content and suspended colloidal solids. Localized precipitation of dissolved solids occurs at the heat exchange surface due to wall temperatures higher than bulk fluid temperature. Low fluid velocities (less than 3  ft/s) allow suspended solids to settle on the heat exchange surface.Cooling water is typically on the tube side of a shell and tube exchanger because it's easy to clean. To prevent fouling, designers typically ensure that cooling water velocity is greater than 0. 9 m/s and bulk fluid temperature is maintained less than 60  °C. Other approaches to control fouling control combine the â€Å"blind† application of biocides and anti-scale chemicals with periodic lab testing. Maintenance Plate heat exchangers must be disassembled and cleaned periodically. Tubular heat exchangers can be cleaned by such methods as acid cleani ng, sandblasting, high-pressure water jet, bullet cleaning, or drill rods.In large-scale cooling water systems for heat exchangers, water treatment such as purification, addition of chemicals, and testing, is used to minimize fouling of the heat exchange equipment. Other water treatment is also used in steam systems for power plants, etc. to minimize fouling and corrosion of the heat exchange and other equipment. A variety of companies have started using water borne oscillations technology to prevent biofouling. Without the use of chemicals, this type of technology has helped in providing a low-pressure drop in heat exchangers. In nature HumansThe human nasal passages serve as a heat exchanger, which warms air being inhaled and cools air being exhaled. You can demonstrate its effectiveness by putting your hand in front of your face and exhaling, first through your nose and then through your mouth. Air exhaled through your nose is substantially cooler. [20][21] In species that have e xternal testes (such as humans), the artery to the testis is surrounded by a mesh of veins called the pampiniform plexus. This cools the blood heading to the testis, while reheating the returning blood. Birds, fish, marine mammalsCountercurrent exchange conservation circuit Further information: Countercurrent exchange in biological systems â€Å"Countercurrent† heat exchangers occur naturally in the circulation system of fish, whales and other marine mammals. Arteries to the skin carrying warm blood are intertwined with veins from the skin carrying cold blood, causing the warm arterial blood to exchange heat with the cold venous blood. This reduces the overall heat loss in cold waters. Heat exchangers are also present in the tongue of baleen whales as large volumes of water flow through their mouths. 22][23] Wading birds use a similar system to limit heat losses from their body through their legs into the water. Carotid rete The carotid rete is a counter-current heat exchangi ng organ in some ungulates. The blood ascending the carotid arteries on its way to the brain, flows via a network of vessels where heat is discharged to the veins of cooler blood descending from the nasal passages. The carotid rete allows Thomson's gazelle to maintain its brain almost 3 °C cooler than the rest of the body, and therefore aids in tolerating bursts in metabolic heat roduction such as associated with outrunning cheetahs (during which the body temperature exceeds the maximum temperature at which the brain could function). [24] In industry Heat exchangers are widely used in industry both for cooling and heating large scale industrial processes. The type and size of heat exchanger used can be tailored to suit a process depending on the type of fluid, its phase, temperature, density, viscosity, pressures, chemical composition and various other thermodynamic properties.In many industrial processes there is waste of energy or a heat stream that is being exhausted, heat exch angers can be used to recover this heat and put it to use by heating a different stream in the process. This practice saves a lot of money in industry, as the heat supplied to other streams from the heat exchangers would otherwise come from an external source that is more expensive and more harmful to the environment. Heat exchangers are used in many industries, including: * Waste water treatment Refrigeration * Wine and beer making * Petroleum refining In waste water treatment, heat exchangers play a vital role in maintaining optimal temperatures within anaerobic digesters to promote the growth of microbes that remove pollutants. Common types of heat exchangers used in this application are the double pipe heat exchanger as well as the plate and frame heat exchanger. In aircraft In commercial aircraft heat exchangers are used to take heat from the engine's oil system to heat cold fuel. 25] This improves fuel efficiency, as well as reduces the possibility of water entrapped in the fu el freezing in components. [26] Early 2008, a Boeing 777 flying as British Airways Flight 38 crashed just short of the runway. In an early-2009 Boeing-update sent to aircraft operators, the problem was identified as specific to the Rolls-Royce engine oil-fuel flow heat exchangers. [26] Other heat exchangers, or Boeing 777 aircraft powered by GE or Pratt and Whitney engines, were not affected by the problem. [26]